Modi’s India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic Democracy

Christophe Jaffrelot’s Critical Examination of India’s Changing Democracy

In recent years, concerns about the retreat of liberal democracy have grown across the world. India, often described as the world’s largest democracy, has increasingly become part of this global discussion.

Christophe Jaffrelot’s Modi’s India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic Democracy examines this changing political landscape and asks a fundamental question: Why is India, a country that was long regarded as an exception in the post-colonial world for successfully sustaining democracy, experiencing democratic backsliding?

The book presents a critical assessment of India’s political trajectory under Narendra Modi and explores the relationship between Hindu nationalism, populism, ethnic democracy, and authoritarianism.

From Conservative Democracy to the “Silent Revolution”

Jaffrelot structures his analysis around three broad phases in the evolution of Indian democracy.

The first is described as “conservative democracy.” Although India adopted a progressive Constitution, the political system during the Nehru and Indira Gandhi eras did not fully realize the possibilities of deeper democratic consolidation.

According to the review, the Congress party’s clientelist politics limited Nehru’s ability to implement important land reforms and pursue his vision of a “socialistic pattern of society.” The review also points to shortcomings regarding positive discrimination.

Indira Gandhi’s period similarly witnessed limited progress on land reforms, while the declaration of the Emergency represented a distinctly authoritarian and socially conservative turn.

The second phase is described as the “democratization of democracy.”

This period is associated with what Jaffrelot calls a “silent revolution” — the growing political representation of lower-caste communities, particularly in northern Indian politics, accompanied by declining participation among some upper-caste and middle-class voters.

The review argues that this transformation was followed by a counter-revolution aimed at establishing what Jaffrelot calls “ethnic democracy.”

The Rise of Hindu Nationalist Populism

A major part of Jaffrelot’s argument concerns the growing influence of Hindu nationalist aspirations and populist politics.

Narendra Modi was selected by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) to become Prime Minister in 2014, with the Gujarat Model presented as a model for national politics.

According to the review, this political approach sought not only to respond to the social changes generated by the “silent revolution,” but also to strengthen Hindu nationalist populism.

The review describes the political strategy as involving hope, fear, and anger, including the portrayal of Muslims as the “other” and the revival of a sense of Hindu vulnerability.

At the same time, Jaffrelot’s analysis challenges the assumption that Modi’s electoral success can simply be explained by lower-caste support.

The review argues that the BJP’s traditional upper-caste and middle-class constituency played a crucial role. According to this interpretation, resentment among sections of these groups toward the political rise of marginalized communities after the Mandal era was converted into electoral support for Modi.

The Question of Economic Inequality

Another important theme in the book is the relationship between political populism and economic policy.

The review notes that Modi’s political rhetoric repeatedly emphasized his plebeian roots and appealed to lower-caste communities by offering a sense of dignity and self-esteem.

However, it argues that this rhetoric was not matched by equally strong redistribution policies designed to improve their material welfare.

At the same time, the review describes an apparent strengthening of upper-caste influence in Parliament and state assemblies, alongside increasing socioeconomic inequality.

This tension between populist rhetoric and socioeconomic outcomes is central to the book’s broader criticism of the political transformation taking place in India.

From Constitutional Democracy to “Ethnic Democracy”

The second major section of Jaffrelot’s argument examines what he describes as India’s transition from a constitutional democracy toward a “de facto ethnic democracy.”

The review identifies several mechanisms that, according to Jaffrelot, contribute to this transformation.

These include the promotion of a more “Hinduized” public space, laws concerning cow protection and religious conversion, emphasis on “Bharat,” the influence of the RSS in state institutions, revisions of history, challenges to left-liberal ideologies, restrictions affecting civil society organizations, changes in education, and what the author sees as a weakening of secularism.

The treatment of religious minorities is particularly significant.

Jaffrelot argues that Muslim and Christian communities have faced increasing marginalization and that violence, including forms of digital and physical vigilantism, has contributed to the emergence of what he describes as the foundations of a “de facto Hindu rashtra.”

Majoritarian Politics and the “Other”

The review further explores how Hindu majoritarian consciousness can become politically powerful through the creation of an “other.”

According to the analysis, Modi’s appeal to Hindu identity helped blur some caste divisions by emphasizing a shared religious identity.

At the same time, religious minorities were increasingly portrayed as outsiders. The review describes this process as contributing to their treatment as “second-class” citizens and to the growth of street and online vigilantism.

Jaffrelot’s broader argument is that populism often works through two simultaneous processes: presenting a majority population against minority “others” while claiming to represent the nation as a whole.

This combination of majoritarian identity and populist leadership forms a central part of the book’s explanation of the rise of ethnic democracy.

From Ethnic Democracy to Authoritarianism

The final part of the book focuses on authoritarianism.

Jaffrelot connects populism, homogenization, polarization, and authoritarianism, arguing that nationalist-populist leadership can develop authoritarian tendencies.

The review suggests that the “ethnic democracy” project requires increasing control over institutions, including the media, alongside what it calls the deinstitutionalization of democratic institutions.

Elections therefore remain important, but they are interpreted through the concept of “electoral authoritarianism.”

The book’s argument is not simply that authoritarianism replaces elections. Rather, elections can continue to exist while democratic institutions and practices are simultaneously weakened.

Marginalization of Religious Minorities

One of the strongest themes highlighted in the review is the institutional marginalization of Indian Muslims.

The review states that Muslims face not only social marginalization but also institutional and judicial marginalization.

It further argues that the two terms of Modi’s leadership witnessed an increasing “officialization of marginalization,” with the second period involving what the review describes as direct targeting through legislative measures.

According to this interpretation, authoritarianism has two major consequences: it affects religious minorities while simultaneously weakening the institutions capable of challenging government power.

The Decline of Constitutional Secularism

Underlying much of Jaffrelot’s analysis is the question of secularism.

The review emphasizes the distinction between the Indian understanding of secularism and the French concept of laïcité.

According to the source, Indian secularism traditionally recognized different religious communities as possessing equal rights rather than demanding a strict separation between religion and politics.

The review argues that this constitutional understanding has been challenged by the emergence of communalism and ethnic nationalism.

For Jaffrelot, this transformation is not simply about changes in political rhetoric. It represents a deeper challenge to the constitutional principles that have historically defined the Indian democratic project.

A Carefully Researched Political Analysis

Despite the strongly critical nature of its argument, the review praises Jaffrelot’s research methodology.

It describes Modi’s India as careful, exhaustive, and comprehensive, emphasizing the extensive references and supporting evidence throughout the book.

The reviewer also notes that the book brings together themes explored in several earlier works concerning globalization, Hindu nationalism, Christians in India, Hindutva, contemporary politics, and the BJP’s digital ecosystem.

The reviewer further positions Jaffrelot as an external observer and argues that his position outside the political actors being studied can contribute to an independent perspective.

Conclusion

Modi’s India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic Democracy presents a deeply critical interpretation of India’s political transformation under Narendra Modi.

Through its three-part structure, the book traces a trajectory from conservative democracy, through the democratization of democracy and the “silent revolution,” toward what Jaffrelot identifies as ethnic democracy and, ultimately, authoritarianism.

Its central themes include Hindu nationalism, populism, majoritarian politics, minority marginalization, institutional change, secularism, economic inequality, and the changing character of democratic institutions.

The book’s central warning is that democracy cannot be understood simply through the existence of elections. Democratic health also depends on constitutional institutions, equal citizenship, secular principles, civil society, and the ability of institutions to challenge political power.

Whether one agrees with all of Jaffrelot’s conclusions or not, the book provides a substantial framework for examining one of the most important questions facing contemporary India: how does a constitutional democracy change when majoritarian politics becomes increasingly central to the political system?

Book Details

Book: Modi’s India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic Democracy
Author: Christophe Jaffrelot
Publisher: Princeton University Press
Year: 2021
Pages: 656
ISBN: 9780691206806